Amish Religious Customs essays

Amish Religious Customs essays In the last few decades, tourists have discovered the Amish. Each year, people travel to places like Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, hoping to catch a glimpse of Amish life. From the buggies and the plows, to the simply dressed people, the Amish have become fascinating to the non-Amish. The Amish population is around 140,000 and continues to grow. But who are the Amish and what makes their unique way of life so interesting, and why does the population continue to flourish? What advantages have the Amish found to rejecting traditional American culture, and keeping life so simple? These questions can begin to be answered by studying the Amish history, and how their values, customs and traditions tie into their religion. In the year 1517, a Catholic monk in Germany named Martin Luther, advocated church reform and new doctrines. Several German princes supported him, but government and religion still operated together. A group of Christians in Zurich, Switzerland, believed government and religion should be completely separate. They also believed that Christians should model themselves after the Beatitudes that Jesus of Nazareth discussed in his Sermon on the Mount, which discusses being peacemakers and clean of heart. Another belief was that church members should be baptized as adults, when they have a true commitment to Christianity. So this small group re-baptized each other. This earned them the name Anabaptists, which started out as a nickname meaning re-baptizer (Inge, 2000). Within a few decades, the Anabaptists in northern Europe became known as the Mennonites, named after the Roman Catholic priest Menno Simons. By the late 1600s, the Anabaptists still maintained their goal of remainin g separate from the world, but Jakob Ammann, a Swiss church elder, thought the discipline was not strict enough. His actions and leadership formed a new church. These members were...

Amish Religious Customs essays

Amish Religious Customs essays In the last few decades, tourists have discovered the Amish. Each year, people travel to places like Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, hoping to catch a glimpse of Amish life. From the buggies and the plows, to the simply dressed people, the Amish have become fascinating to the non-Amish. The Amish population is around 140,000 and continues to grow. But who are the Amish and what makes their unique way of life so interesting, and why does the population continue to flourish? What advantages have the Amish found to rejecting traditional American culture, and keeping life so simple? These questions can begin to be answered by studying the Amish history, and how their values, customs and traditions tie into their religion. In the year 1517, a Catholic monk in Germany named Martin Luther, advocated church reform and new doctrines. Several German princes supported him, but government and religion still operated together. A group of Christians in Zurich, Switzerland, believed government and religion should be completely separate. They also believed that Christians should model themselves after the Beatitudes that Jesus of Nazareth discussed in his Sermon on the Mount, which discusses being peacemakers and clean of heart. Another belief was that church members should be baptized as adults, when they have a true commitment to Christianity. So this small group re-baptized each other. This earned them the name Anabaptists, which started out as a nickname meaning re-baptizer (Inge, 2000). Within a few decades, the Anabaptists in northern Europe became known as the Mennonites, named after the Roman Catholic priest Menno Simons. By the late 1600s, the Anabaptists still maintained their goal of remainin g separate from the world, but Jakob Ammann, a Swiss church elder, thought the discipline was not strict enough. His actions and leadership formed a new church. These members were...

Amish Religious Customs essays

Amish Religious Customs essays In the last few decades, tourists have discovered the Amish. Each year, people travel to places like Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, hoping to catch a glimpse of Amish life. From the buggies and the plows, to the simply dressed people, the Amish have become fascinating to the non-Amish. The Amish population is around 140,000 and continues to grow. But who are the Amish and what makes their unique way of life so interesting, and why does the population continue to flourish? What advantages have the Amish found to rejecting traditional American culture, and keeping life so simple? These questions can begin to be answered by studying the Amish history, and how their values, customs and traditions tie into their religion. In the year 1517, a Catholic monk in Germany named Martin Luther, advocated church reform and new doctrines. Several German princes supported him, but government and religion still operated together. A group of Christians in Zurich, Switzerland, believed government and religion should be completely separate. They also believed that Christians should model themselves after the Beatitudes that Jesus of Nazareth discussed in his Sermon on the Mount, which discusses being peacemakers and clean of heart. Another belief was that church members should be baptized as adults, when they have a true commitment to Christianity. So this small group re-baptized each other. This earned them the name Anabaptists, which started out as a nickname meaning re-baptizer (Inge, 2000). Within a few decades, the Anabaptists in northern Europe became known as the Mennonites, named after the Roman Catholic priest Menno Simons. By the late 1600s, the Anabaptists still maintained their goal of remainin g separate from the world, but Jakob Ammann, a Swiss church elder, thought the discipline was not strict enough. His actions and leadership formed a new church. These members were...

Native American Two-Spirit

Native American Two-Spirit In many Native American communities, the term Two Spirit- sometimes twospirited, depending on the source- is used to refer to indigenous members who fall outside of traditional gender roles. This term is not a substitute for homosexuality; instead, it applies to people who are considered to be a third gender, and typically hold a sacred ceremonial role within their culture. Two Spirit Key Takeaways Two Spirits are Native American or First Nations individuals who identify with both male and female genders.There is some question about the historical context of Two Spirits, because there are hundreds of Native tribes, all of which have their own unique cultural traditions.It is inappropriate for a non-Native individual to use the term Two Spirit to describe themselves. Origins and Definition of the Term Prior to the 1990s, Native people who identified as a third gender were known by the pejorative anthropological term  berdache, which is a non-Native word typically associated with male prostitutes. However, at a Winnipeg conference for gay and lesbian Native Americans in 1990, the term Two Spirit was coined to refer to Natives who define themselves as having both masculine and feminine spirits. Since that time, according to John Leland of the  New York Times, Two-Spirit societies have formed in Montana as well as in Denver, Minnesota, New York State, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, Tulsa, and elsewhere, organized around what members assert was once an honored status within nearly every tribe on the continent. Male-bodied Two Spirit people are found in many Native American and First Nations communities. In the past, they fulfilled traditionally male roles, such as fighting in wars and going to historically male activities like sweat lodge ceremonies. However, at the same time, they took on traditionally female tasks as well- cooking, washing, and childcare, for example- and often wore female dress. Author Gabriel Estrada says in Two Spirits,  Ndleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze that while not all indigenous nations have rigid gender roles, among tribes that do, the range includes feminine woman, masculine man, feminine man, and masculine woman. In many Native nations, the Two Spirit person found a role in their community as a shaman, visionary, keeper of oral traditions, matchmaker or marriage counselor, mediator in time of disputes, and caretaker of the vulnerable, such as children, the elderly, or injured warriors. They were often seen as sacred beings, whose dual genders were a gift from the Great Spirit. Historical Accounts We Wha (1849-1896), a Zuni, full length portrait. Photographer  John K. Hillers  /  Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of American Ethnology  / Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons During the colonization of North America, indigenous groups were still maintaining their traditions orally; there was no written history among the tribes. However, there was a fair amount of documentation among European invaders, many of whom kept journals of their travels. In California, Don Pedro Fages led a Spanish expedition into the territory during the late eighteenth century. He wrote in his diary of homosexual practices among the indigenous populations he encountered, describing Indian men who, both here and farther inland, are observed in the dress, clothing, and character of women- there being two or three such in each village. In 1722, a French explorer, Claude-Charles Le Roy, also called Bacqueville de La Potherie, described that among the Iroquois, there was an awareness of a third gender in other tribal groups. He said, Perhaps these male Iroquois are so horrified by [doing] women’s work because they have seen among the nations of the south some men who act like women, and give up men’s clothing for those of women. You see this very rarely among the Iroquois and they condemn this way of life by the light of Reason. It is likely that the group he referred to was the Cherokee Nation. A fur trader named Edwin T. Denig spent two decades with the Crow Nation in the early 1800s, and wrote that men who dressed as women and specialized in womens work were accepted and sometimes honored... Most civilized communities recognize but two genders, the masculine and feminine. But strange to say, these people have a neuter. Denig also wrote of a woman who led men into battle and had four wives. It is likely he was referring to a warrior known as Woman Chief. She was adopted by the Crow at age ten, and by all accounts was a tomboy, and only interested in male pursuits. Her adoptive father, whose sons had all been killed, encouraged her, and when he died, she took over his lodge and led men into battle against the Blackfoot. Details of Woman Chiefs exploits were chronicled by traders and other contemporaries, and it was generally acknowledged that she was a Two Spirit. Although the term Two Spirit itself is relatively new, the concept is not. There are numerous tribal-specific names, traditions, and roles among the different Native nations. The Lakota winkte were viewed as people who were neither male nor female, and whose androgyny was an inborn character trait, or the result of a sacred vision. They often occupied a distinct spiritual role in the community, fulfilling ceremonial duties that could not be performed by individuals who were male or only female. The winkte took on roles as seers, medicine people, healers. During times of battle, the visions of a winkte could guide warriors into their fight, and help determine steps taken by war chiefs. Among the Cheyenne, the HÄ“Ä“ mÄÆ'n Ä•h held a similar position. They accompanied warriors into battle and treated wounds after the fighting had ended, and cured the sick during times of peace. Wewha was a Zuni two-spirited person, or lhamana, who lived in the nineteenth century. She performed historically masculine spiritual and judicial roles, such as guiding religious ceremonies and serving as a mediator in disputes. However, she also spent time on traditionally feminine activities- sewing dresses, making pottery, weaving baskets, and other domestic pursuits. Controversy Over Scholarship There is some controversy in the Native community about Two Spirits- not about their existence, but about the modern notion that Native peoples historically described LGBTQ folks as two-spirited and celebrated them as healers and shamans. Mary Annette Pember, who is a journalist and member of the Ojibwe Nation, says that while Two Spirit is some empowering terminology, it also comes with some questionable scholarship. Pember points out that Native culture is based upon oral tradition, and much of what has been decided by anthropologists is based upon the writings of European conquerers, painting all Native tribes with the same brush. She says: [This] conveniently overlook[s] distinct cultural and language differences that Native peoples hold crucial to their identity... Years of colonization and appropriation by European invaders, as well as the well-intentioned religious hegemony that demonized our spirituality and way of life... has made Indian Country much like the rest of rural America in terms of enlightened treatment of LGBTQ folks. In fact, some tribes  have created laws  specifically banning same-sex marriage. Gender-variant individuals have a hard way to go, in and out of Indian Country. Although not all indigenous tribes viewed Two Spirit people the same way, overall it does appear that they were accepted as a perfectly routine part of the community. In general, each individual was judged for their contributions to the tribe, rather than for conformity to rigid gender roles. Two Spirits Today Jean Decay attends the Two-Spirit Pride Party at the Inaugural Indigenous Peoples Day Celebration. Chelsea Guglielmino / Getty Images Todays Two Spirit community is actively taking both new and traditional spiritual roles in their various nations. Tony Enos, of  Indian Country Today,  points out that Claiming the role of Two Spirit is to take up the spiritual responsibility that the role traditionally had. Walking the red road, being for the people and our children/youth, and being a guiding force in a good way with a good mind are just some of those responsibilities. He adds that service to the elders and youth of the community is an important part of maintaining the old cultural traditions. Modern Two Spirits publicly embrace the mixture of masculine and feminine within them, and there are Two Spirit societies all over North America. Gatherings, including powwows which are open to the public, are held regularly as a way of not only building community, but also of educating non-Natives about the world of the Two Spirit. Todays Two Spirits are taking on the ceremonial roles of those who came before them, working to facilitate spiritual events in their communities. They also work as activists and healers, and have been instrumental in bringing GLBT health issues to the forefront among the hundreds of Native tribes. By bridging the gap between gender roles and indigenous spirituality, todays Two Spirits are continuing the sacred work of their ancestors. Sources Estrada, Gabriel. â€Å"Two Spirits, Ndleeh, and LGBTQ2 Navajo Gaze.†Ã‚  American Indian Culture and Research Journal, vol. 35, no. 4, 2011, pp. 167–190., doi:10.17953/aicr.35.4.x500172017344j30.Leland, John. â€Å"A Spirit of Belonging, Inside and Out.†Ã‚  The New York Times, The New York Times, 8 Oct. 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/10/08/fashion/08SPIRIT.html?_r0.Medicine, Beatrice. â€Å"Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories.†Ã‚  Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, vol. 3, no. 1, 2002, doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1024.Pember, Mary Annette. â€Å"Two Spirit Tradition Far From Ubiquitous Among Tribes.†Ã‚  Rewire.News, Rewire.News, 13 Oct. 2016, rewire.news/article/2016/10/13/two-spirit-tradition-far-ubiquitous-among-tribes/.Smithers, Gregory D. â€Å"Cherokee ‘Two Spirits’: Gender, Ritual, and Spirituality in the Native South.†Ã‚  Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Jo urnal, vol. 12, no. 3, 2014, pp. 626–651., doi:10.1353/eam.2014.0023.

Reforming America 1815-1860 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reforming America 1815-1860 - Essay Example She was a staunch defender of the true message and essence of the Declaration of Independence. As others saw the independence movement as the liberation of the American people from the colonial government and the dominion of great American men in shaping the nation’s early history, women activists such as Girmke were critiques of men’s monopoly over the political affairs of the country. She published her letters in 1838 during the administration of President Martin Van Buren of the Democratic Party. The historical context of her letters was indeed important because the existing federal government supported the policy of slavery in the southern states. Girmke’s letters, in line with the liberal principles of the Abolitionist movements, were justifiable as women were looked down upon not only in terms of political field but also in the society. The collection of Girmke’s letters was addressed to the president of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, Mary S . Parker. In this respect, the prominent activist was addressing her concerns to the whole women population of the American nation who, like her, experienced discrimination and oppression based on gender biases.2 In her first letter to Parker entitled â€Å"The Original Equality of Woman†, she admits that according to the Bible God (Jehovah addressed in her letters) created man as the resident and caretaker of His Paradise. This means that man is superior to all living things including animals, plants and others that dwell in the world. However, the Scriptures tell that the opposite sex is not an inferior being to man. God created woman second to man in this chronological order alone, but never second in God’s favour. Girmke goes on by citing Biblical stories to defend her thesis. She retells the case of Adam and Eve as her example. She argues that Adam and Eve fell into sin and damnation but never from equality. The author admits that it was woman who commits sin firs t and influences man into temptation by following her example of eating from the Tree of Knowledge. Therefore, man and woman worked hand-in-hand in their decline from God’s Word. Inequality and bias towards men would only be justified if Adam had scolded Eve in her succumbing to temptation and ultimately if Adam had persuaded Eve to repent and ask God for forgiveness.3 In her second letter to Parker entitled â€Å"Woman Subject only to God†, Girmke deepens her argument not only with the illegitimate construct of man dominating the woman but also with the thought that woman was never subject to man’s obedience. She argues that before the establishment of a patriarchal society, the Scriptures themselves manifest that woman was created as an independent being, free from the clutches of men.4 Clearly, the examples of Girmke’s letters take evidence from the Scriptures which make her thesis more compelling due to the gravity of the Holy Word. She makes use of B iblical cases that clearly show that from the very beginning, there was no formal or official establishment of a patriarchal society. She makes it clear that God had created man and woman in equal terms and was supposed

Jessica Banks Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Jessica Banks Case - Essay Example ame, it has to be understood that Haywards has not said that Banks cannot have access to the data she had generated, and she can still try to get a copy with his consent if she approaches this issue in a more mature way. Secondly, it has to be discussed whether Bank has a right to continue with the research which she has been working on in Haywards lab even after she quit that job and joined in another institution (Bebeau 24). In that case, the contribution of the student and the mentor have to be assessed regarding the generation of the data before a decision is made (Bebeau 24). Also, the spirit of research has always been that of a collective effort (Bebeau 24). Thirdly, it has to be decided how she could maintain her independence and at the same time, her collegiality and her personal integrity regarding this issue (Bebeau 25). Both these interests seem to be mutually conflicting in this particular context Bebeau 25). Here, the major thing is that usually the mentors role has the risk of being undervalued by beginner researchers (Bebeau 25). And also, a researcher needs to have the support of the mentor to pursue a successful career on a long term basis (Bebeau 25-26). Finally, in this part of solving the problem, Banks is faced with another conflict in which she has to decide whether she should fulfill her obligation to respect her mentor at the cost of loosing her research data generated so far or whether she should refuse to obey her mentor and fulfill her perceived obligation to warn other students who have a possibility to be in a similar situation (Bebeau 26). As far as this question is concerned, the basic premise has to be that the mentor should clearly communicate to the students, the legal obligations regarding the research work and the student should also try to learn such matters in the beginning of the research itself (Bebeau 26). In Bebeaus four-part approach, the second aspect of the problem lies in determining who the interested

Benefits of Flexible Working Hours

Benefits of Flexible Working Hours 6. Literature Review 6.1 Definitions Janssen and Nachreiner (2004) defined Flexible Working Hours as involving a continuous choice on behalf of employers, employees or both, regarding the amount (chronometry) and the temporal distribution (chronology) or working hours. â€Å"Arrangements that allow employees to have a more variable schedule as opposed to complying with the standard 8-hour workday† (Janssen and Nachreiner, 2004) According to the definition of Handbook on Alternative Work Schedules, Flexible hours are referred to as the times during the workday, workweek, or pay period within the tour of duty during which an employee covered by a flexible work schedule may choose to vary his or her times of arrival to and departure from the work site consistent with the duties and requirements of the position. Flexible working hours is also defined as a system of attendance whereby individual employees select their starting and finishing times from day to day, subject to the concurrence of the work unit in which they work and to specified conditions. A system in which employees can start or stop work at different hours of the morning or evening provided that they work a certain number of hours per day or week (http://www.hrdictionary.com/definition/flexible-working-hours.html). According to the definition of Technical staff, Southern Cross University, flexible working hours are work schedule in which employees can use their own discretion as to the time on the job as long as they complete the specified number of hours within a work period that is, one month, one week, or one day (Barker, 1999). It is a system of working a set number of hours with the starting and finishing times chosen within agreed limits by the employee (www.oxfordreference.com) Christensen and Staines (1990) defined this as an arrangement provides employees with some limited discretion as to the starting and stopping times for their work day, while requiring a standard number of hours to be worked within a given time period. Flexible working hours refers to the practice by employers of allowing employees to vary their attendance pattern. Variation is usually in terms of start and finish times, as well as hours per day. Flexible working hours are often referred to as flexi time. Employees working flexible hours are able to use flexi time credit to take time off without reducing other leave credits. Flexible working hours are usually subject to a number of operating rules (Transport strategy, Adecision makers guide book). ‘Flexible working hours are also defined as working time arrangements allowing a continuous choice regarding the duration and the temporal distribution of working time for both the employee and the employer (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2006/05/DE0605NU4.htm). A simple deviation from the standard working time is not seen as sufficient for a distinction. The definition intends to exclude shorter but regular working time arrangements such as part-time work or deviating but regular working hours such as shift work (http://www.eurofound.europa.eu/ewco/2006/05/DE0605NU04.htm). 6.2 Why flexible working hours are implemented? Flexible working conditions are becoming increasingly common within modern economies, and in many countries legislation has been introduced enabling certain groups of employees to request flexible working. For example, Scandinavian countries in particular grant extensive flexible working rights, such as parental leave, flexitime and other family friendly provisions to employees (Brandth, 2001). Flexible working arrangements are increasingly offered by organizations in order to remain competitive through the recruitment and retention of top performing employees. These arrangements aim to be a win/win situation for the organization, by way of increased productivity and loyalty, and for the employee through work life benefits. The introduction of flexible working allows employees to have greater control over their work life balance, and can act as an important tool in the organizations recruitment and retention process. Flexible working is one device that employers can use to attract a more diverse workforce, allowing them to compete in the war for talent( Management Brief Report). Some forms of flexible working schedules such as part-time work, compressed work weeks, annualized hours, and flexitime have a long history and have traditionally been introduced largely to meet employer needs for flexibility or to keep costs down, though they may also have met employee needs and demands (Dalton Mesch, 1990).These and other flexible arrangements are also introduced ostensibly to meet employee needs for flexibility to integrate work and family demands under the banner of so-called family-friendly employment policies (Harker, 1996; Lewis Cooper, 1995). Often a business case argument has been used to support the adoption of flexible work arrangements; that is, a focus on the cost benefits (Barnett Hall, 2001). Other contemporary drivers of change include increased emphasis on high-trust working practices and the thrust toward gender equity and greater opportunities for working at home because of new technology (Evans 2000). Nevertheless, despite much rhetoric about t he importance of challenging outmoded forms of work and the gradual association of flexible working arrangements with leading-edge employment practice (Friedman Greenhaus, 2000), the implementation of these policies remains patchy across organizations (Glass Estes, 1997). Since 2003 the right to request flexible working conditions has been granted to all UK employees with children aged less than six years or to those with caring responsibilities (BERR 2008). This right has recently been extended to employees with children aged up to 16 years (BERR, 2009). Many of these legislative changes have been explicitly or implicitly underpinned by the assumption that flexible working will have positive effects on employee adaptability, performance (Artazcoz 2005), work-life balance and health (MacEachen 2008). In a number of low and middle-income countries flexible working hours is a relatively new concept which tends to be restricted to large multi-national companies. Paul Ashton, mobility solutions support manager at Logsys, discusses the work anywhere, anytime, on any device implications of flexible working. Following the introduction of new UK legislation in April 2003 with regards to offering employees with young or disabled children flexible working options, there have been massive developments in the way in which organisations operate. Two years on, the ideas behind flexible working are still being discussed, experimented with and tentatively accepted throughout the UK. At the forefront of this movement is the objective of providing employees with a suitable work/life balance and key to its success is supporting this through achieving more profitable business practices. Flexible working is all about working in real time. It is about mobilizing work forces and giving individuals the freedom and ability to work any time, anywhere, using any device. It is about enterprise-wide access to information, applications and data and the ability to util ize these items as and when they are needed. For employees it means home working abilities and potentially improved work/life balance. It should also mean easier working, more effective methods and processes, and the ability to work smarter to achieve more. For employers it means maximizing efficiency to achieve more through the same resources. It means improved employee retention and improved services for customers- which in turn means increased competitiveness and greater profitability. 6.3 Kinds of flexible hour work practice Flexible work arrangements can take on a variety of characteristics, ranging from staggered working hours to remote, off-site work areas. Within the Flexible work arrangements themselves, employers often provide additional flexibility (e.g., selecting the time of day when staggered working hours begin) and/or offer various options for Flexible work arrangements in order to provide even greater flexibility to their workforces (www.clc.executiveboard.com). Compressed working weeks â€Å"Any system of fixed working hours more than 8 hours in length which results in a work week of less than 5 full days of work a week† (Tepas,1985). This standard definition includes the most obvious examples with 9, 10 or12 hours a day, and a normal full-time working week of 36 to 42 hours. Twelve-hour shifts are particularly controversial. In recent years, as Hoekstra, Jansen Van Goudoever (1994) report for the Netherlands, â€Å"there has been increasing variety in working patterns. The compressed working week is one of the many possible arrangements for working hours. This increasing variety can be attributed to the desire for greater flexibility in working hours. Tepas (1985) have listed the potential advantages of the compressed workweek as follows: Increased possibility for multi-day off-the-job leisure and care activity A reduction in commuting problems and costs Fewer workdays with no loss of pay A regular, steady workweek Ease in covering all jobs at the required times More time for scheduling meetings or training sessions Increased opportunity for communication within the organization Increased opportunity for communication with other organizations Decrease in start-up and/or warm-up expenses Fewer supervisory personnel may be needed More efficient stock flow for assembly-line operations Less night work Increased production rates Improvement in the quantity or quality of services to the public Better opportunities to hire skilled workers in tight labour markets Flexi time Ronen (1981) described Flextime (also called flexible working hours) as a type of flexible work arrangement that allows employees to vary their work schedules, within certain ranges and dimensions, according to their differing needs (). Unlike other flexible work arrangements, flextime focuses exclusively on the work schedule and does not alter the location of work or the total number of hours worked. Although there is no truly standard work schedule, the traditional workday is defined as a forty-hour week, from 9:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Monday through Friday (Catalyst, 1997). Flextime allows employees to break from the standard work schedule by starting the work day early and ending early, starting late and ending late, or taking breaks during the day and making up the time at the beginning or end of the day. Some flextime options allow employees to work extra hours on one day to make up for shortened hours on another day. Golembiewski and Proehl, (1978) and Christensen and Staines (1990) have been identified several key dimensions of flextime, such as core hours (the daily hours during which employees must be at work), bandwidth (the earliest and latest starting and stopping times to which employees can adjust their schedules) and schedule flexibility, which is the ability to change starting and stopping times from day to day and week to week without prior approval from supervisors. A study by Hill, Hawkins, Ferris and Weitzman (2001) found that perceived flexibility in the timing and location of work was positively related to work-family balance, and that the greater the extent of such flexibility, the more the employees were able to work a greater number of hours without harming their work-family balance. Another study found a direct effect of flextime on work-family conflict (Shinn, Wong, Simko, Ortiz-Torres, 1989). Several studies have found that flextime is related to outcomes indicative of work-family conflict. For example, Ralston (1989) found that employees were better able to juggle work and family demands after flextime was implemented and Bohen Viveros-Long (1981) found that flextime reduced stress among parents. Thomas Ganster (1995) found that flextime was directly related to perceived control over work and family, and it was indirectly related to work-family conflict. Annual-hours contracts annual-hours contracts are contracts of employment where the total hours to be worked in a twelve-month period are specified, rather than the weekly hours. This provides employers with the flexibility to devise a shift system to ensure continuous operations. Traditionally annualized hours were adopted in the manufacturing sector, but increasingly it is a popular system for organizing work time in the service sector, especially where twenty-four-hour, seven-day-week services are provided (http://www.jrank.org/business/pages/39/annual-hours-contracts). Job Share Job sharing is an arrangement where two or more employees share the duties and responsibilities of a single full time job. Each job sharer has broadly the same responsibilities, although their contractual terms and conditions of employment may differ. Job-sharing is common now across a range of occupations, including professions such as GPs, accountants and managers. This is an option that women may prefer as a way of returning to work after maternity leave. The employer benefits as it retains valuable skills within the organization, encourages retention and often results in greater productivity (www.clc.executiveboard.com). Self rostering â€Å"Flexible rostering is where each rostering period is planned individually (typically 4 -6 weeks at a time). Shifts are allocated on the basis of manning requirements which reflect anticipated demand patterns, as well as myriad other rostering parameters, including staffs preferences for off-duty† (Silvestro Silvestro, 2000). Thornthwaite Sheldon (2004) described that employee self-rostering systems enable individual employees to tailor working hours to maximize their compatibility with domestic responsibilities. Such rosters would allow employees to choose to work mornings, afternoons or school hours only, or some combination of different hours each day. Self-rostering means that a group of employees make work schedules by themselves. This is based on a company time frame determined by the employer in which the quantitative and qualitative demands have to be met. By designing the work schedules, the employees determine their own starting and ending time duration of their services and are supposed to create a dialogue to synchronize the individual wishes with the requirements set by the employer (Zeggenschap, 2008). Part time work Employees with a part-time work arrangement typically follow one of the following schedules: Work a reduced number of hours per day, five days per week Work eight hours per day, less than five days per week Employers are increasingly providing part-time employees with many of the same benefits provided to full-time workers particularly smaller employers that want to attract candidates but do not need many full-time workers. As with flextime, some states mandate that part-time work be available for women returning to work after a pregnancy (www.clc.executiveboard.com). 6.4 Benefits of flexible hours working arrangement. Both employees and employers alike can benefit through the utilization of flexible work practices. Flexible work arrangements can help to improve recruitment and retention, assist in managing workloads and in boosting employee satisfaction. The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), U.K. guidelines for employers and employees state that flexible working opportunities benefit everyone: employers, employees and their families (www.dti.gov.uk, Flexible Working). For individuals, the opportunity to work flexibly can greatly improve the ability to balance home and work responsibilities. The DTI guidelines provide examples of the following flexible working schemes: Annualized hours describes working time organized on the basis of the number of hours to be worked over a year rather than a week; usually to fit in with peaks and troughs of work. Pay will depend on the hours worked each pay period. Compressed hours allow individuals to work their total number of agreed hours over a shorter period. For example, employees might work their full weekly hours over four, rather than five, days. They would be paid for a full-time job but would not receive overtime payments for any agreed extra hours worked during a day. Flexi time gives employees choice about their actual working hours, usually outside certain agreed core times. Individuals are paid for the hours that they work. Home-working doesnt have to be on a full-time basis and it may suit an employee to divide their time between home and office. Individuals are paid according to the hours that they work. Employers are required to carry out a risk assessment of the activities undertaken by home-workers, identifying any hazards and deciding whether enough steps have been taken to prevent harm to them or anyone else who may be affected by the work. Job-sharing typically involves two people employed on a part-time basis while working together to cover a full-time job. Both receive pay for the hours they work. Shift working gives employers the scope to have their business open for longer periods than an eight-hour day. Agreed flexible working arrangements may lead to a shift premium payment not being required. Staggered hours allow employees to start and finish their day at different times. Pay depends on hours worked in total rather than the time at which they were worked. Term-time working allows employees to take unpaid leave of absence during the school holidays. Bond et al, (2005) The Families and Work Institute report, When Work Works, states that employees who are provided with flexibility in their work are more likely to: Be engaged in their jobs and committed to helping their company succeed; Intend to remain with their current employer; and, Feel satisfied with their jobs. The positive work-life balance effects of flexible working are probably the best known and most frequently cited advantages. Aiming for a greater balance between demands from within and outside the workplace is often the driver for individuals to seek such arrangements. The interplay between employee wellbeing, work-life balance and performance brings into play factors such as organizational commitment, enthusiasm, energy and satisfaction. Flexible working arrangements, such as flexitime and teleworking, are becoming more common in industrialized countries but the impacts of such flexibility on employee health and wellbeing are largely unknown. Several studies have highlighted the beneficial effects of employee-negotiated flexible working on health and wellbeing, such as reduced stress and stress-related illnesses, reduced sickness absence and improved work-life balance, including time spent with children and marital satisfaction (MacEachen 2008). Kerry et al (2010) examined the health and wellbeing effects of flexible working arrangements which favour the worker as well as those dictated by the employer (for example, fixed-term contracts or mandatory overtime). The findings of this review tentatively suggest that flexible working interventions that increase worker control and choice (such as self-scheduling or gradual/partial retirement) are likely to have a positive effect on health outcomes, including improvements in physical health (reduced systolic blood pressure and heart rate), mental health (e.g. reduced psychological stress) and general health (e.g. tiredness and sleep quality) measures. Importantly, interventions which increased worker flexibility were not associated with any adverse health effects in the short term. In contrast, interventions that were motivated or dictated by organizational interests, such as fixed-term contract and involuntary part-time employment, found equivocal or negative health effects. Kandolin (1996) reported significant reductions in tiredness during the night shift when comparing intervention and control group participants. Smith (1998) demonstrated improvements in mental health, sleep quality on day shift, sleep duration on night shift and alertness during night shift in the intervention group compared with the comparison group. Viitasalo (2008) found statistically significant decreases in systolic blood pressure and heart rate for workers with flexible scheduling compared with those in the control group. A study which was performed by Cranfield University, found that the intuitive expectation that the employee who is better able to integrate work and non-work will experience enhanced wellbeing. Indirectly, this positive association impacts on performance, with employees in a sense ‘repaying their organization with improved levels of motivation and drive. Some employees who had become accustomed to working flexibly expressed unwillingness to move back to a more traditional pattern, linking their flexible arrangement to reduced pressure and stress. There was abundant evidence of individuals adapting their working arrangement over time to meet both changing job demands and evolving demands from the home, and great value was placed on the personal control to meet needs from both domains which was afforded by their flexible working pattern. So flexibility is highly valued, but does not remain static over time (www.workingfamilies.org.uk). Stress is linked to wellbeing and work-life balance, and here the picture is less clear. Flexible working could be seen as a positive measure which helped reduce workplace stress through reducing hours, cutting down on commuting time and minimizing work overload. However, it could also be a source of stress, if a reduction in hours meant that employees struggled to achieve objectives which had not been appropriately reduced to match such a change. This reinforces the message that flexible working needs to be well designed to succeed, particularly in the case of reduced hours work where the required tasks of the role should reflect the hours available (www.workingfamilies.org.uk). This study at Cranfield University also focused on the impact on employees performance related to the flexible working schedule. It has found that individuals and their managers felt positive 61% and 45% respectively. A similar number of managers 43% felt that there was no impact either way from flexible working. Only a small proportion of respondents indicated that flexible working had a negative impact on the quantity of work of either the flexible workers themselves or their co-workers. Flexible work allows people to make changes to the hours or times they work, and where they work. It helps people organize their careers to accommodate other commitments, and to manage transitions in and out of the workforce. For flexible work to be described as â€Å"quality†, these changes must not adversely affect income, career progression, availability of scheduled leave or access to desirable employment for those who take it up. For an arrangement to be considered truly flexible it must provide the employee with the means to manage his or her work while managing other commitments, and without adversely affecting the business. In addition, â€Å"quality flexible work† provides benefits for both employees and employers. Benefits for employees may include increased opportunities for families to spend â€Å"quality time† together and greater ease for family members to combine paid work and family responsibilities, while benefits for employers include addressing skills shortages and increased staff retention and loyalty (Fursman, 2009). Employee driven flexibility is widely regarded as a measure that can reduce work-life balance conflict. For example, in New Zealand, research by the Department of Labour (2008) found that employees who reported a particular FWA was available to them were more likely to rate their work-life balance highly. This is supported by research by the Families Commission showing that 88% of survey respondents who had a lot of flexibility were satisfied with their work-life balance, compared to 52% of respondents who had little or no flexibility (Families Commission, 2008). Statistics New Zealand data also shows that among employed people; those that did not have flexible hours in their main job were more likely to be dissatisfied or very dissatisfied with their work-life balance (Statistics New Zealand, 2008). Similarly in Australia, a 2008 survey found that employees without FWAs were more likely to experience work-life balance conflict (Pocock et al, 2009). Fursman and Zodgekar (2009) studied the Impacts of Flexible Working Arrangements on New Zealand Families. The findings of this research suggest that many family members have access to flexible work arrangements, and that such arrangements provide significant benefits for them and their families, including less stress and pressure and more opportunities to spend time together. Flexible work arrangements can also allow family members to meet their care responsibilities while maintaining their participation in the paid workforce. The arrangements wanted and needed by families changed as their families changed; for example, as children reached school age, or older family members became increasingly more dependent. A range of studies associate flexible work arrangements with positive outcomes for employees. This includes a positive impact on employees perceptions of job quality (Kelliher Anderson, 2008), increased job satisfaction and reduced leaving intentions (Forsyth and Polser-Debruyne, 2007), enabling families to spend more time together, and reducing stress and pressure (Families Commission, 2008). Gill et al(2007) studied the incidence and impact of flexible working arrangements in smaller businesses. In this study, positive impacts of flexible work arrangements in recruitment and retention, enhanced employee relations, commitment and loyalty are found, together with disadvantages of operational problems and administrative burdens. William et al (1981) have found that the flexi time did not support the traditional flexi time consequences for work satisfaction or leisure satisfaction. However, employees working under a flexi time schedule reported certain other improvements, including easier travel and parking, a smaller amount of interrole conflict, a greater feeling of being in control in the work setting; and more opportunity for leisure activities. 6.5 Limitations of implementation of flexible working hours Hayman (2009) has revealed that the attitudes and expectations of co-workers and employers intermingled with issues about fairness, managerial support, feelings of guilt, and career impacts are particular barriers to flexibility. And also he found that the availability of flexible work options alone may not be enough to influence work-life balance outcomes for employees and that perceived usability is critical. A UK study by Waumsley and Houston (2009) also found that perceptions play a significant role with study participants perceiving that flexible working is detrimental to work performance and career progression. This was despite participants recognizing that flexible working delivers work-life balance benefits. Organizational policies on flexible work cannot be fully effective without real support and commitment from management in implementing and applying these policies. Managers need to encourage and actively support the use of flexible arrangements, and organizations need to actively support managers in making flexible working arrangements part of the normal operating environment. Managers need to be provided with appropriate resources, training and time to appropriately assess all requests for changes in work arrangements. Some adjustments to work organization may be necessary, such as scheduling meetings when all staff can attend (Equal Opportunity for Women in the WorkplaceAgency;http://www.eowa.gov.au/Pay_Equity/Files/Recommendations). Organizations also need to ensure that all employees who are using flexible work arrangements are accepted and respected as valued and committed employees. Such employees should be included in all training and professional development opportunities and given the opportunity for promotion on the same basis as all other employees. A critical part of a flexible work culture is ensuring that employees understand and work within an environment of mutual trust and obligation. Employees must have a strong commitment to the success of any flexible work arrangement. Employees on flexible work arrangements must maintain work and performance standards and ongoing communication between employees and their supervisors is essential. Employee engagement in the success of flexible work arrangements will maximize benefits for both the organization and the employee (Equal Opportunity for Women in the WorkplaceAgency;http://www.eowa.gov.au/Pay_Equity/Files/Recommendations) Research by the Families Commission; found that a perception of unsupportive workplace cultures; a perceived impact on career progression and reduction in income; and a perception that flexibility was only available to highly valued employees were among the barriers experienced by employees (Families Commission, 2008). It also found that flexibility could also lead to guilt about taking time off and employees working harder and doing longer hours than might ordinarily be the case (Families Commission, 2008). A recent smaller study of firms in the New Zealand accounting sector noted the impact of traditional values and culture within the sector that work against flexibility (Ministry of Womens Affairs, 2010). This includes a culture of long hours and at partnership level, a perception that being a partner and caring for children were mutually exclusive (Ministry of Womens Affairs, 2010). Work-life balance issues including Flexible Working Arrangements have a significant gender dimension (Fursman, 2008). Fursmans 2008 review of literature usefully summarizes some of the key issues emerging as including: The significance of gender differences in the industries and occupations that women and men work in, with different occupations affording different opportunities to access Flexible Working Arrangements. A range of literature discusses gender differences in decision-making about career choices with women more likely to make decisions based on accommodating family needs. Differences in the availability of Flexible Working Arrangements, both in the UK and New Zealand, with women more likely to request arrangements affecting their total number of hours worked where as men were more likely to request forms of flexibility that had no effect on income and earnings. Research revealing differences between men and womens perceptions of work with women more likely to place weight on putting family needs before work (Fursman, 2008). Social policy journal of New Zealand mentioned about a research showed that there were a number of barriers preventing the take-up of flexible working arrangements, with many of these resulting from employee perceptions that using flexible work arrangements would not be supported by their employers. The lack of available arrangements in particular workplaces was an obvious barrier; however, other barriers centered on negative employer attitudes, both perceived and actual, to requests for flexible work. Employees reported that they did not use flexible work arrangements because doing so would have a negative impact on career progression and negative financial consequences (parti